AP bio: C3. C4, and CAM Plants

(Dandelions are example of plants that use the C3 pathway.  This picture is taken from this site: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=dandelion&num=10&hl=en&gbv=2&biw=1024&bih=610&tbm=isch&tbnid=ZGn9W6PPMOALHM:&imgrefurl=http://www.manataka.org/page1126.html&docid=766naOQmHrWzVM&imgurl=http://www.manataka.org/images/dandelion.jpg&w=425&h=319&ei=eTCqTrLNBdLQiALO5_GuCw&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=249&sig=110919301459896358943&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=115&tbnw=153&start=0&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0&tx=80&ty=74)
C3 Plants: When it is hot or dry, C3 plants close their stomata to prevent water loss.  Because of this, photorespiration occurs when the carbon dioxide is less concentrated in the air spaces in the leaf, which slows down the Calvin Cycle.  Oxygen and carbon dioxide accumulate in the leaf and rubisco adds oxygen to the RuBP.  The product is broken down and a two-carbon compound is broken down, releasing carbon dioxide.  Cactus is an example of C3 plants.


(Corn is an example of a plant that uses the C4 pathway.  This picture is taken from this site: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=c4+plants+examples&num=10&um=1&hl=en&biw=1024&bih=610&tbm=isch&tbnid=7WCZi_3MfDP0FM:&imgrefurl=http://fhs-bio-wiki.pbworks.com/w/page/12145744/CAM%2520and%2520C4%2520plants&docid=dXcRfJ_0a06RsM&imgurl=http://fhs-bio-wiki.pbworks.com/w/page/12145744/f/corn.jpg&w=2304&h=3072&ei=PS6qTtbtA4riiALW-uiYCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=424&vpy=114&dur=2383&hovh=259&hovw=194&tx=35&ty=276&sig=110919301459896358943&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=93&start=0&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0)
C4 Plants: Before the Calvin Cycle begins, PEP carboxylase (an enzyme) helps add carbon dioxide is to PEP (a 3-carbon compound).  The product is a four-carbon compound that is made in the leaf's mesophyll cells and is transported to the bundle-sheath cells (located around veins of the leaf).  The four-carbon compound is broken down, releasing carbon dioxide and initiating the Calvin Cycle.


(Pineapples are an example of plants that use the CAM pathway.  This picture is taken from this site: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=pineapple+tree&hl=en&gbv=2&biw=1024&bih=610&tbm=isch&tbnid=yrwJi6IcL45PpM:&imgrefurl=http://www.mrbigben.com/food/pineapple.html&docid=OvrVOWQ13DdWwM&imgurl=http://www.mrbigben.com/food/twin-fruit-pineapple-719390.JPG&w=640&h=480&ei=KS-qTtvAGse0iQLB66G1Cw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=526&vpy=177&dur=2051&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=158&ty=214&sig=110919301459896358943&page=1&tbnh=118&tbnw=153&start=0&ndsp=20&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:0)
CAM Plants: These plants may also close their stomata to prevent water loss and beak down compounds to release carbon dioxide during the day.  However, the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway doesn't separate the process of carbon fixation from the Calvin Cycle, unlike the C4 pathway.

Source: Campbell and Reece's Biology, Sixth Edition

Anatomy and Physiology: Treatments for Broken Bones

An X ray in order to confirm that the bone is broken, find the exact location of the bone fracture and to determine how out of place the bone is.  Treatment for broken bones make sure that the pieces of the bone is put back into its original position and is aligned properly.  This way, the bone will have its original/natural shape after it heals.Sometimes, the pieces of the bone can be moved back into its original position through the skin by using anesthetic, but other times, an operation is needed to open the injury site.  When a broken bone is treated through the skin,it needs to be secured in its position with pins to a frame.  The pins and frame are removed after the injury heals.  When a broken bone is treated through an operation, the bone is secured in these ways: 


1) pins

The pin is inserted into the bone to hold the pieces together  so that the bone can heal properly.  (This picture was taken from this site: http://www.inion.com/patienteducation/Orthopaedics/en_GB/Patient_education_Hand/)

2) screws

This picture shows screws that are securing the two fragments of a bone with an oblique fracture.  (This picture came from this site: http://aofoundation.com/wps/portal/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3hng7BARydDRwN39yBTAyMvLwOLUA93I4MQE_2CbEdFAF3RnT4!/?contentUrl=%2Fsrg%2F78%2F05-RedFix%2F18-ProxPhlx-Oblq-LgScrw%2F03-Decision.enl.jsp&soloState=lb&bone=Hand&segment=Phalanges&showPage=redfix&classification=78-14-Metaphyseal-oblique-%2F-spiral-fractures&treatment=Operative&method=Proximal%20phalanx%20-%20Distal&implantstype=Lag%20screw%20fixation&approach=&redfix_url=1285238719398&step=3&subStep=11)

3) metal plate

Like the previous two treatments, a metal plate can also be used to hold the broken pieces of bone together and the bone may also be kept stable by an external fixation., as shown in the picture.  (This picture came from this site: http://www.assh.org/Public/HandConditions/Pages/WristFractures.aspx)

AP bio: Biochemistry Wordle

link to biochemistry wordle: http://www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/4207814/Untitled

I made organic chemistry the largest word because different chemical levels greatly affect the internal conditions of living organims.  One compound that is essential to life is water.  Its electronegativity causes polarity which causes hydrogen bonding which is responsible for the various properties of water (cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat).  These properties, in turn, allow water to be the universal solvent (the substance that can dissolve nearly every element/compound) and also allows life to exist on earth.  The properties of organic molecules are determined by their functional groups such as the hydroxyl group, the carbonyl group, the carboxyl group, the amino group, the sulfhydryl group, and the phosphate group.  These organic molecules can be joined together to form macromolecules, which includes carbohydrates (made of monosaccharides), lipids (made of fatty acids), proteins (made of amino acids), and nucleic acid (made of nucleotides).

Anatomy and Physiology: Chapter 3 Word Cloud

link to chapter 3 word cloud: http://www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/4238248/Untitled

I made tissues the biggest word because chapter 3 emphasized a lot on tissue and their special functions contribute to keeps the body working properly.  The four types of tissues are epithelium, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.  Epithelium are classified by how many cell layers there are (simple and stratified) and the shape of the cells (squamous, cubodial, and columnar).  (I also wanted to include the types of connective and muscle tissue, but that would have been too many words. :] )  Cells are what makes up tissues and organelles perform specific functions to keep the cells alive.  One organelle, the nucleus, contain the chromosomes (DNA/genetic information) that have instructions for cell activities, like cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis) and  protein synthesis.  Protein synthesis involves ribonucleic acid (RNA) relaying messages/instructions, and transcription and translation (from base sequence into amino acid sequence).  Cells also use passive transport, such as diffusion and osmosis, and active transport, such as solute pumping or bulk transport to get molecules they need for life.  Membrane junctions (tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes) are specializations of the plasma membrane of cells.

Anatomy and Physiology: Tissue Disease

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a type of connective tissue disease that cause the inflammation of joints and nearby tissues, and may also affect some organs.  When a person has rheumatoid arthritis, the body's immune system attacks the healthy tissue.  Although RA can happen to a person of any age, it is more common among older adults (middle age and up).  The joints that are most commonly affected include the fingers, knees, ankles, and wrists.  The disease is long-term and develops slowly, beginning with stiffness, fatigue, and minor joint pain.  However, as time passes, the joints may be very painful, become less flexible, and deformed.  In some cases, RA can lead to complications such as damaging lung tissue, blood vessels, spinal injury from damaged neck bones, and swelling of heart muscle (myocarditis).

This illustration shows that a hand affected by rheumatoid arthritis have inflamed and irritated joints while a normal hand without rheumatoid arthritis have joints that aren't inflamed.  (This picture was taken from this site: http://rheumatoid-arthritis-treatment.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/15JULY-224x3001.jpg)

an actual hand with joints that have rheumatoid arthritis  (This picture was taken from this site: http://www.pharmaceutical-networking.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/rheumatoid_arthritis.jpg)

Here is a link to a video that explains more about what rheumatoid arthritis is and how it can be treated: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTJNQ4FPF0w

AP bio: Macromolecule Structure and Function

Carbohydrates:  These macromolecules include sugars and their polymers (polysaccharides).  Sugars provide energy and is a carbon source so when sugars from glycosidic linkages to make a polymer, that polymer also provides and stores energy.  Also, depending on the configuration of the sugars, polysaccharides play different structural roles.  For example, cellulose is a main component of plant cell walls, and chitin makes up the exoskeleton of arthropods and fungi cell walls.

Lipids: These macromolecules have hydrophobic behaviors and include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.  Fats are made up of fatty acids, which consists of a long hydrocarbon tail and a carboxyl group as the head.  This structure make fats good energy storage molecules and they can storage twice the energy than carbohydrates can.  Phospholipids is a glycerol joined to fatty acids and  a negatively charged phosphate group.  Because of their unique structure, phospholipids make up the cell membranes to form a boundary between the internal parts of the cell and the cell's environment.  Steroids have four connected carbon rings that are joined to different functional groups.  Again, because of this structure, some steroids, like cholesterol, is part of animal cell membranes and precursor for some hormones.

Proteins: These macromolecules are one or more polypeptide chains that are folded into a specific three-dimensional shape.  Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids, which is made of a asymmetric carbon bonded to a hydrogen, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable/R group.  The R group determines the properties of the amino acid.  Although there are only 20 animo acids, they can bond in so many different ways that it results in many polypeptides, which makes a large variety of proteins.  Because the order amino acids in a protein make a unique genetic code, proteins have the instructions for almost every process of life.  This includes their function as enzymes to speed up and catalyze reactions, transporting materials, receiving and processing stimuli, directing movements, etc.

Nucleic Acids: These macromolecules carry a genetic code and transfers the hereditary information.  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which has the shape of a double helix, can unravel and replicate itself because of its base-pairing property.  For nucleotides in DNA, monomers of nucleic acids, adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine.  In this way, genes are passed down through the generations.  Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are able to direct protein synthesis because of the its structure: Again, because of the base-pairing property, DNA transfers the genetic code to RNA during transcription and mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the code to ribosomes to synthesize proteins.  (For RNA, adenine always pairs with uracil and guanine still always pairs with cytosine.)