During class, I have become more aware of salmonella. Before taking this class, I did not exactly know what salmonella is. Salmonella are bacteria that can cause food poisoning. It can also cause diarrhea and typhoid fever. Salmonella infections are most commonly caused by contaminated food. After learning this, I started to eat less medium-rare cooked meat and more well-cooked meat. By cooking meat for a longer time, it kills off more of the bacteria and contaminants in the meat and greatly reduces the chances of being infected with salmonella.
Thursday, May 31, 2012
Anatomy and Physiology: The Humoral and Cell Mediated Immune Responses
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response
When there is a first exposure to an antigen, these free antigens activates B cells. The lymphocyte "switches on" and undergoes clonal selection, which is when the lymphocyte grow and multiplies rapidly to form many identical cells called clones. This clone formation is the primary humoral response. Most of the B cell clone members become plasma cells, which produce the same highly specific antibodies. The plasma cells die off after 4-5 days and the antibody level in the blood goes down. There are some B cell clone members that don't become plasma cells but instead, become memory cells that can respond to the same antigen later. As a result, in later immune responses or secondary humoral responses, the response to the presence of the antigen is more faster, prolonged, and effective.
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
In the cellular immune response, T cells are sensitized by binding to an antigen and a self-protein on the macrophage surface. After clonal selection, clone members differentiate into memory T cells and effector T cells. There are several different classes of T cells: cytotoxic (killer) T cells, helper T cells, memory T cells, and suppressor T cells.
Cytotoxic (killer) T cells: directly attack and kill infected and cancerous cells
Helper T cells: binds with specific antigen presented by a macrophage; stimulates production of other immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and B cells); acts directly and indirectly by releasing lymphokines
Memory T cells: descendant of a T cell; forms during initial immune response (primary response); may exist in the body for years to allow it to respond more quickly to later infections by the same antigens
Suppressor T cells: slows or stops activity of B and T cells when the infection or attack has been conquered
Sources:
Elaine N. Marieb's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Eighth Edition
When there is a first exposure to an antigen, these free antigens activates B cells. The lymphocyte "switches on" and undergoes clonal selection, which is when the lymphocyte grow and multiplies rapidly to form many identical cells called clones. This clone formation is the primary humoral response. Most of the B cell clone members become plasma cells, which produce the same highly specific antibodies. The plasma cells die off after 4-5 days and the antibody level in the blood goes down. There are some B cell clone members that don't become plasma cells but instead, become memory cells that can respond to the same antigen later. As a result, in later immune responses or secondary humoral responses, the response to the presence of the antigen is more faster, prolonged, and effective.
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
In the cellular immune response, T cells are sensitized by binding to an antigen and a self-protein on the macrophage surface. After clonal selection, clone members differentiate into memory T cells and effector T cells. There are several different classes of T cells: cytotoxic (killer) T cells, helper T cells, memory T cells, and suppressor T cells.
Cytotoxic (killer) T cells: directly attack and kill infected and cancerous cells
Helper T cells: binds with specific antigen presented by a macrophage; stimulates production of other immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and B cells); acts directly and indirectly by releasing lymphokines
Memory T cells: descendant of a T cell; forms during initial immune response (primary response); may exist in the body for years to allow it to respond more quickly to later infections by the same antigens
Suppressor T cells: slows or stops activity of B and T cells when the infection or attack has been conquered
Sources:
Elaine N. Marieb's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Eighth Edition
Thursday, April 26, 2012
Anatomy and Physiology: Rickets - A Nutritional Disease
 |
| X-ray of the legs of a two-year old ricket sufferer. Notice that the legs are bowed. |
Cause
Rickets is a nutritional disease that is caused by a deficiency in vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate, leading to the softening or weakening of bones. It is more common among children.
Symptoms
Symptoms of rickets include bone tenderness or pain, especially in the arms, legs, pelvis, and spine; impaired growth; increased bone fractures, muscle cramps; dental deformities, such as delayed formation of teeth, increased cavities, or holes in the enamel; skeletal deformities, such as an oddly shaped skull, bowlegs, bumps in the ribcage, or scoliosis; and short stature, when the adults are less than five feet tall.
Treatment
In order to eliminate the cause of the disease, the vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus that is lacking is replaced. This is usually done with a change in diet so that sources of vitamin D, such as liver, fish, or milk, are included in the diet. Exposure to moderate amounts of sunlight is also needed. In some cases in which rickets is caused by a metabolic problem, vitamin D supplements may be prescribed. Position or bracing may be needed to reduce deformities. For some skeletal deformities, corrective surgery may be necessary.
Sources:
information from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001384/
picture from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickets
Thursday, April 12, 2012
Anatomy and Physiology: Different Thinkers and the Nervous System
Part 1: Different Thinkers
The test that I did showed that I am a music thinker. When I study, it is probably better to study to music in the background to help me remember the information I studied. I sometimes also put the information I am studying into a tune of a song to remember it better, (especially when it is with numbers). By appealing to my musical ability/intelligence, it will make it easier for me to study. For potential careers, I can possibly be a composer, musician, or sound engineer.
Part 2: The Nervous System
In this game, I learned that nerve impulses can travel from the cranial and cervical regions, or the spinal cord (which is made of the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions.) Below are examples of parts of the body that are wired to each of these different regions:
cranial: liver
cervical: hand, diaphargm
thoracic region of spinal cord: rectus abdominis ("six-pack"), armpit
lumbar region of spinal cord: foot
sacral region of spinal cord: gluteus maximus (muscle that allows the leg to straighten out)
The test that I did showed that I am a music thinker. When I study, it is probably better to study to music in the background to help me remember the information I studied. I sometimes also put the information I am studying into a tune of a song to remember it better, (especially when it is with numbers). By appealing to my musical ability/intelligence, it will make it easier for me to study. For potential careers, I can possibly be a composer, musician, or sound engineer.
Part 2: The Nervous System
In this game, I learned that nerve impulses can travel from the cranial and cervical regions, or the spinal cord (which is made of the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions.) Below are examples of parts of the body that are wired to each of these different regions:
cranial: liver
cervical: hand, diaphargm
thoracic region of spinal cord: rectus abdominis ("six-pack"), armpit
lumbar region of spinal cord: foot
sacral region of spinal cord: gluteus maximus (muscle that allows the leg to straighten out)
Sources:
Wednesday, April 4, 2012
Anatomy and Physiology: A Disease of the Senses
Macular degneration is the degeneration of the macula, which is responsible for sharp, central vision. It is often caused by aging and is usually genetic. When it is age-related, it usually results in a slow but painless loss of vision. Symptoms include shadowy areas in central vision or fuzzy and distorted objects in your vision.
A macular degeneration test can diagnose whether you have the disease. This is done by looking at the Amsler grid, a chart of black lines organized in a graph pattern. To a person with normal vision, the Amsler grid will look like this:
However, to a person with macular degeneration, the Amsler grid might look something like this:
There are two forms of age-related macular degeneration, the dry form and the wet form. No definite treatment or cure has been found for the dry form, but it can be prevented by consuming antioxidants, especially zinc and vitamins A, C, and E, selenium, and copper. For the wet form, laser treatment can be used to stop or lessen vision loss by destroying some blood vessels to prevent the spread of vision loss. However, laser treatment only works in about half of the cases.
A macular degeneration test can diagnose whether you have the disease. This is done by looking at the Amsler grid, a chart of black lines organized in a graph pattern. To a person with normal vision, the Amsler grid will look like this:
There are two forms of age-related macular degeneration, the dry form and the wet form. No definite treatment or cure has been found for the dry form, but it can be prevented by consuming antioxidants, especially zinc and vitamins A, C, and E, selenium, and copper. For the wet form, laser treatment can be used to stop or lessen vision loss by destroying some blood vessels to prevent the spread of vision loss. However, laser treatment only works in about half of the cases.
Sources:
Amsler grid pictures from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsler_grid
information from: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page2_em.htm#Macular Degeneration Causes
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page3_em.htm#Macular Degeneration Symptoms
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page7_em.htm#Macular Degeneration Treatment
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page8_em.htm#Medical Treatment
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page3_em.htm#Macular Degeneration Symptoms
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page7_em.htm#Macular Degeneration Treatment
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/macular_degeneration/page8_em.htm#Medical Treatment
Friday, March 2, 2012
AP Bio: Genome Chromosome 5: Environment
In "Chromosome 5: Environment," Ridley begins the fifth chapter of Genome by saying that he has been misleading the readers because he talked about genetics as if it was words written in a simple language when it is actually "a world of greys, of nuances, of qualifiers, of 'it depends'" (65). With that, Ridley presents Chromosome 5, a more complicated gene that is called the 'asthma gene.' There are many theories about asthma, including one theory that claims that people who wash themselves more or encounter less mud have a higher chance of becoming asthmatics. To make it more complicated, most people with asthma are also allergic to something else, such as allergies to bee stings or peanuts. As a result, there is no clear cause for the wide range of responses from asthmatics and Ridley concludes that "grey indeterminacy, variable causality and vague predisposition are the hallmarks" (75) of genetics.
Source: Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters by Matt Ridley
Source: Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters by Matt Ridley
AP Bio: Understanding Intelligence
In Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters by Matt Ridley, the sixth chapter "Chromosome 6: Intelligence" presents that a person's IQ is determined both by 1) their genes and the environment of the womb, and 2) the things they learn after birth and the outside environment. It is important of define and debate our understanding of intelligence and its origins because then we can know which is the best way for us to learn. It also provides insight into who we are and our origins.
This relates to us because as the book Genome discussed, someone who may have top grades in school and is book-smart may not be streetwise, whereas someone who may have low grades in school would most likely be streetwise. This implies that there are different types of intelligence: natural intelligence, mathematical/logical intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence, kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, and existential/spiritual intelligence. Different people are more intelligent in different areas, and not all of these intelligences are valued in school. School mostly tests your mathematical and linguistic intelligence.
Depending on which area you are more intelligent in, you could use it to help you in school if you are a student. For example, if you are interpersonally intelligent, you can study in a group and will be able to absorb information faster that way. If you are intrapersonally intelligent, it is best for you to study on your own and ask yourself how the things you are learning can apply to you. If you are spatially intelligent, you can draw diagrams to let you see the big picture/concept of things. If you know that you are more intelligent in one area, use strategies that match that area to help you.
Source: Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters by Matt Ridley
This relates to us because as the book Genome discussed, someone who may have top grades in school and is book-smart may not be streetwise, whereas someone who may have low grades in school would most likely be streetwise. This implies that there are different types of intelligence: natural intelligence, mathematical/logical intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence, kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, and existential/spiritual intelligence. Different people are more intelligent in different areas, and not all of these intelligences are valued in school. School mostly tests your mathematical and linguistic intelligence.
Depending on which area you are more intelligent in, you could use it to help you in school if you are a student. For example, if you are interpersonally intelligent, you can study in a group and will be able to absorb information faster that way. If you are intrapersonally intelligent, it is best for you to study on your own and ask yourself how the things you are learning can apply to you. If you are spatially intelligent, you can draw diagrams to let you see the big picture/concept of things. If you know that you are more intelligent in one area, use strategies that match that area to help you.
Source: Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters by Matt Ridley
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